church architecture

Apse
In architecture, the apse (Greek ἀψίς (apsis), then Latin absis: "arch, vault"; sometimes written apsis; plural apses) is a semicircular recess covered with a hemispherical vault or semi-dome.  In Romanesque, Byzantine and Gothic Christian abbey, cathedral and church architecture, the term is applied to a semi-circular or polygonal termination of the main building at the liturgical east end (where the altar is), regardless of the shape of the roof, which may be flat, sloping, domed or hemispherical.

The apse is the semicircular or polygonal termination to the choir or aisles of a church. In relation to church architecture it is generally the name given to where the altar is placed or where the clergy are seated.

Nave
In Romanesque and Gothic Christian abbey, cathedral basilica and church architecture, the nave is the central approach to the high altar, the main body of the church.  "Nave" (Medieval Latin navis, "ship") was probably suggested by the keel shape of its vaulting.  The nave of a church, whether Romanesque, Gothic or Classical, extends from the entry -- which may have a separate vestibule, the narthex -- to the chancel and is flanked by lower aisles separated from the nave by an arcade.  If the aisles are high and of a width comparable to the central nave, the structure is sometimes said to have three naves.

Transept
A transept (with two semitransepts) is a transverse section, of any building, which lies across the main body of the building.  In Christian churches, a transept is an area set crosswise to the nave in a cruciform ("cross-shaped") building in a Romanesque and Gothic Christian church architecture.  Each half of a transept is known as a semitransept.

The transept of a church separates the nave from the sanctuary, whether apse, choir, chevet, presbytery, or chancel.  The transepts cross the nave at the crossing, which belongs equally to the main nave axis and to the transept.  Upon its four piers, the crossing may support a spire (e.g., Salisbury Cathedral), a central tower (e.g., Gloucester Cathedral) or a crossing dome (e.g., Saint Paul's Cathedral).

Narthex
The narthex of a church is the entrance or lobby area, located at the end of the nave, at the far end from the church's main altar.  Traditionally the narthex was part of the church building, but it was not considered part of the church proper.  It is either an indoor area separated from the nave by a screen or rail, or an external structure such as a porch.

Chancel
The chancel (or presbytery) is the space around the altar in the sanctuary at the liturgical east end of a traditional Christian church building, possibly including the choir. It may terminate in an apse.

As well as the altar, the chancel usually houses the credence table and seats for officiating and assisting ministers. In Anglican and Methodist churches it will usually include the choir. In some traditions, the pulpit and lectern may be in the chancel, but in others these functions are considered proper to the nave.


The chancel is typically raised somewhat above the level of the nave, where the congregation gathers. It may be separated from the nave by a rood screen, a rail, or an open space. In some churches, the congregation may gather on three sides or in a semicircle around the chancel.

Sources:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apse
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nave
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transept
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narthex
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancel

crypt

In architecture, a crypt (from the Latin crypta and the Greek κρύπτη, kryptē; meaning concealed, private) is a stone chamber or vault beneath the floor of burial vault possibly containing sarcophagi, coffins or relics.
In more modern terms, a crypt is most often a stone chambered vault used to store the deceased.  Crypts are usually found in cemeteries and under public religious buildings, such as churches and cathedrals, but are also occasionally found beneath mausolea or chapels on personal estates.  Wealthy or prestigious families will often have a 'family crypt' or 'vault' in which all members of the family are interred.  Many royal families, for example, have vast crypts containing bodies of dozens of former royals.  In some localities an above ground crypt is more commonly called a mausoleum, which also refers to any elaborate building intended as a burial place, for one or any number of people.

Originally crypts were typically found below the apse of a church, such as the Abbey of Saint-Germain in Auxerre, but were later located beneath naves and transepts as well.  Occasionally churches were raised high to accommodate a crypt at the ground level, such as Saint Michael's church in Hildesheim, Germany.

Burial Vault
A burial vault is a structural underground tomb.

It is a stone or brick-lined underground space or 'burial' chamber for the interment of a dead body or bodies.  They were originally and are still often vaulted and usually have stone slab entrances.  They are often privately owned and used for specific family or other groups, but usually stand beneath a public religious building, such as a church, or in a churchyard or cemetery.  A crypt may be used as a burial vault.

Sarcophagus
A sarcophagus is a box-like funeral receptacle for a corpse, most commonly carved in stone, and displayed above ground through they may also be buried.

Sarcophagi were most often designed to remain above ground, hence were often ornately carved or elaborately constructed.  Some were built to be freestanding, as part of an elaborate sealed tomb or series of tombs, while others were intended for placement in crypts and remain accessible to view.

Relic
In religion, a relic is a part of the body of a saint or a venerated person, or else another type of ancient religious object, carefully preserved for purposes of veneration or as a touchable or tangible memorial.  Relics are an important aspect of some forms of Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Shamanism, and many other religions.  The word relic comes from the Latin reliquiae, meaning "remains" or "something left behind" (the same root as relinquish).

Mausoleum
A mausoleum is an external free-standing building constructed as a monument enclosing the interment space or burial chamber of a deceased person or persons.  A monument without the interment is a cenotaph.  A mausoleum may be considered a type of tomb or the tomb may be considered to be within the mausoleum.  A Christian mausoleum sometimes include a chapel.

Sources:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crypt
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vault_%28tomb%29
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarcophagus
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relic
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum

rhetoric

Rhetoric is the art of speaking or writing effectively.  It may entail the study of principles and rules of composition formulated by critics of ancient times and can involve the study of writing or speaking as a means of communication or persuasion.

As an art, rhetoric aims to improve the facility of speakers or writers who attempt to inform, persuade, or motivate particular audiences in specific situations.  As a subject of formal study and a productive civic practice, rhetoric has played a central role in the Western tradition.  Its best known definition comes from Aristotle, who considers it a counterpart of both logic and politics, and calls it "the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion."  Rhetorics typically provide heuristics for understanding, discovering, and developing arguments for particular situations, such as Aristotle's three persuasive audience appeals, logos, pathos, and ethos.  The five canons of rhetoric, which trace the traditional tasks in designing a persuasive speech, were first codified in classical Rome, invention (inventio), arrangement (dispositio), style (elocutio), memory (memoria), and delivery (pronuntiatio).  Along with grammar and logic (or dialectic), rhetoric is one of the three ancient arts of discourse.

From ancient Greece to the late 19th century, rhetoric was a central part of Western education, filling the need to train public speakers and writers to move audiences to action with arguments.  The word is derived from the Greek ῥητορικός (rhētorikós), "oratorical", from ῥήτωρ (rhḗtōr), "public speaker", related to ῥῆμα (rhêma), "that which is said or spoken, word, saying", and ultimately derived from the verb λέγω (loqui), "to speak, say."

Sources:

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/rhetoric
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetoric

global warming

Global warming is the rise in the average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and oceans since the late 19th century and its projected continuation.  Since the early 20th century, Earth's mean surface temperature has increased by about 0.8 °C (1.4 °F), with about two-thirds of the increase occurring since 1980.  Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and scientists are more than 90% certain that it is primarily used by increasing concentration of greenhouse gases produced by human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation.  These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all major industrialized nations.

Climate model projections were summarized in the 2007 Fourth Amendment Report (AR4) by the Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change (IPCC).  They indicated that during the 21st century, the goal surface temperature is likely to rise a further 1.1 to 2.9 °C (2 to 5.2 °F) for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.4 to 6.4 °C (4.3 to 11.5 °F) for their highest.  The ranges of these estimates arise from the use of models with differing sensitivity to greenhouse gas concentrations.

According to AR4, warming and related changes will vary from region to region around the globe.  The effects of an increase in global temperature include a rise in sea levels and a change in the amount and pattern of precipitation, as well a probable expansion of subtropical deserts.  Warming is expected to be strongest in the Arctic and would be associated with the continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost, and sea ice.  Other likely effects of the warming include a more frequent occurrence of extreme-weather events including heat waves, droughts and heavy rainfall, ocean acidification and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes.  Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and loss of habitat from inundation.

Proposed policy responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction, adaptation to its effects, and possible future geoengineering.  Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous antropogenic (i.e., human-induced) climate change.  Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required, and that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 °C (3.6 °F) relative to the pre-industrial level.  Reports published in 2011 by the United Nations Environment Programme and the International Energy Agency suggest that efforts as of the early 21st century to reduce emissions may be inadequate to meet UNFCCC's 2 °C target.

Greenhouse gas
A greenhouse gas (sometimes abbreviated GHG) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range.  This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect.  The primary greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone.  In the solar system, the atmospheres of Venus, Mars, and Titan also contain gases that cause greenhouse effects.  Greenhouse gases greatly affect the temperature of the Earth; without them, Earth's surface would average about 33 °C (59 °F) colder than the present average of 14 °C (57 °F).

However, since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the burning of fossil fuels has contributed to the increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from 280ppm to 397ppm, despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions through various natural "sinks" involved in the carbon cycle.  Anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions (i.e., emissions produced by human activities) come from combustion of carbon based fuels, principally wood, coal, oil, and natural gas.

Fossil fuels
Fossil fuels are oil, coal, and natural gas that originate from decayed plants and animals found in the Earth's crust.  Because they take millions of years to form and are being used at such a rapid rate, fossil fuels are essentially a non-renewable source of energy.  Even so, in 2005, more than three-quarters of the world's energy consumption was through the use of fossil fuels.  They work to generate steam, electricity and power transportation systems.  They make the manufacturing of tens of thousands of commercial goods possible.  And although fossil fuels have become synonymous with modern industrial society, their potential to solve some of the challenges of everyday existence has been understood throughout history.

Use of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide per year.  Carbon dioxide is, of course, one of the notorious greenhouse gases - the stuff directly responsible for global warming.

There are many potential alternatives to the use of fossil fuels (some of them can be rather fruity).  These include biofuel, ethanol, and vegetable oil.  Most scientists believe it's time for humans to address their addiction to fuels derived from decayed plants and animals and help fossil fuels go the way of the dinosaur.

Sources:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas
http://tlc.howstuffworks.com/family/fossil-fuel.htm
http://www.instituteforenergyresearch.org/energy-overview/fossil-fuels/

infusion and tea

Infusion
Infusion is the process of extracting chemical compounds or flavors from plant material in a solvent such as water, oil or alcohol, by allowing the material to remain suspended in the solvent over time (a process often called steeping).  An infusion is also the name for the resultant liquid.

A common example of an infusion is tea, and many tisanes are prepared in the same way.  Lemon, chamomile, senna, apple, ginger, rooibos, and a great many other plants are used individually or in combination.  Herbal infusions in water and oil are both commonly used as herbal remedies.  Coffee can also be made through infusion (as in a French press), but it is more often made through percolation.

Tisane
Tisane or "herbal tea" is a catch-all term for any non-caffeinated beverage made from the infusion or decoction of herbs, spices, or other plant material.  These drinks are distinguished from caffeinated  beverages like coffee, maté, and the true teas (black, green, white, yellow, oolong, etc.), or from a decaffeinated tea, in which the caffeine has been removed.  In addition to serving as a beverage, many tisanes are also consumed due to a perceived medicinal benefit.

Like brews made from the tea bush (Camellia sinensis), such infusions are prepared by combining hot water and fruits, leaves, roots or grains.

Tisanes can be made with fresh or dried flowers, leaves, seeds or roots, generally by pouring boiling water over the plant parts and letting them steep for a few minutes.  Seeds and roots can also be boiled on a stove.  The tisane is then strained, sweetened if so desired, and served.  Many companies produce herbal tea bags for such infusions.

Flavored teas are prepared by adding other plants to an actual tea (black, oolong, green, yellow or white tea); for example, the popular Earl Grey tea is black tea with bergamot (the orange oil, not the herb of the same name), jasmine tea is Chinese tea with jasmine flowers, and genmaicha is a Japanese green tea with toasted rice.

Tea
Tea is an aromatic beverage commonly prepared by pouring hot or boiling water over cured leaves of the tea plant, Camellia sinensis.  After water, tea is the most widely consumed beverage in the world.  It has a cooling, slightly bitter, astringent flavor, which many people enjoy.

The phrase "herbal tea" usually refers to infusions of fruit or herbs made without the tea plant, such as rosehip tea or chamomile tea.  Alternative phrases for this are tisane or herbal infusion, both bearing an implied contrast with "tea" as it is construed here.

Although single estate teas are available, almost all teas in bags and most other teas sold in the West are blends.  Blending may occur in the tea-planting area (as in the case of Assam), or teas from many areas may be blended.  The aim of blending is to obtain better taste, higher price, or both, as a more expensive, better-tasting tea may cover the inferior taste of cheaper varieties.

Some teas are not pure varieties, but have been enhanced through additives or special processing.  Tea is highly receptive to inclusion of various aromas; this may cause problems in processing, transportation, and storage, but also allows for the design of an almost endless range of scented and flavored variants, such as bergamot (Earl Grey), vanilla, and caramel.

FURTHER READING

Caffeine
Caffeine is a bitter, white crystalline xantine alkaloid that acts as a stimulant drug.  Caffeine is found in varying quantities in the seeds, leaves, and fruit of some plants, where it acts as a natural pesticide that paralyzes and kills certain insects feeding on the plants.  It is most commonly consumed by humans in infusions extracted from the seed of the coffee plant and the leaves of the tea bush, as well as from various foods and drinks containing products derived from the kola nut.  Other sources include yerba maté, guarana berries, guayusa, and the yaupon holly.

In humans, caffeine acts as a central nervous system stimulant, temporarily warding off drowsiness and restoring alertness.

Percolation Percolation concerns the movement and filtering of fluids through porous materials.

In coffee percolation, soluble compounds leave the coffee grounds and join the water to form coffee. These soluble compounds are the chemical compounds that give coffee its color, taste, and aroma. Insoluble compounds remain within the coffee filter.

Decoction
Decoction is a method of extraction by boiling, of dissolved chemicals, from herbal or plant material, which may include stems, roots, bark and rhizomes. Decoction involves first mashing, and then boiling in water to extract oils, volatile organic compounds, and other chemical substances. Decoction can be used to make tisanes, teas, coffees, tinctures and similar solutions. Decoctions and infusions may produce liquids with differing chemical properties, as the temperature/preparation difference may result in more oil-soluble chemicals in decoctions vs infusions. The process can also be applied to meats and vegetables to prepare bouillon or stock.

A decoction is also the name for the resulting liquid. Although this method of extraction differs from infusion and percolation, the resultant liquids are often functionally similar.

Alkaloids
Alkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds, that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms.  They are produced by a large variety of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals, and are part of the group of natural products.

Sources:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infusion
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tisane
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tea
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caffeine
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percolation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decoction
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaloid

duty-free shop

Duty-free shops (or stores) are retail outlets that are exempt from the payment of certain local or national taxes and duties, on the requirement that the goods sold will be sold to travelers who will take them out of the country.  Which products can be sold duty-free vary by jurisdiction, as well as how they can be sold, and the process of calculating the duty or refunding the duty component.

However, some countries impose duty on goods brought into the country, though they had been bought duty-free in another country, or when the value or quantity of such goods exceed an allowed limit.  Duty-free shops are often found in the international zone of international airports and sea ports, but goods can be also bought duty-free aboard airplanes and passenger ships.  They are not as commonly available for road or train travelers, although several border crossings between the United States and Canada have duty-free shops for car travelers.

Duty-free outlets were abolished for intra-EU travelers in 1999, but are retained for travelers whose final destination is outside the EU.  They also sell to intra-EU travelers but with appropriate taxes.  Some special member state territories such as Åland, Livigno, and the Canary Islands, are within the EU but outside the EU tax union, and thus still continue duty-free sales for all travelers.

Sources:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duty-free_shop